9 . APPLIED SEMANTICS : BASIC ENGLISH

One of the unanticipated achievements of the twenty-first century was the rapid diffusion of Basic English as the lingua franca of the world.

H. G. WELLS, The Shape of Things to Come.

    When C. K. Ogden and I. A. Richards were studying the problems of definition, in the course of writing The Meaning of Meaning, they practiced defining all sorts of words and found themselves using a very limited set of definition-words. This suggested the possibility of inventing a complete language with a very small vocabulary, which would cover all the words outside its own range by describing, defining, or expanding them. Such a definition vocabulary, instead of admitting symbols like anachronism, poltroon, ulterior, verisimilitude,¹ would express the notions implied by those words in simpler language, by a larger number of more elementary symbols. Then every English-speaking person would have in this analytical language a check upon his use of full English ; and every foreigner, learning so small a vocabulary very quickly indeed, would have command of a universal tongue.

    *** 4 pages ***
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1 . Basic Translation :
anachronism - error about time when a person or thing was in existence ; something no longer in harmony with the times.
poltroon - person given to fear, running from danger.
ulterior - further away, on the father side ; deeper than, at the back of, what is seen or openly said.
verisimilitude - air of being true.
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The Purposes of Basic English

   Basic English has three uses. In the first place it is the most practical and economical international language ever devised. English is already the natural or administrative language of over six hundred million people ; millions of others have learned at least some English in foreign schools-- so that, although one cannot estimate with certainty it seems probably that the number of people in the world who are already equipped to understand Basic at a simple level must be nearer a billion than half a billion. its future, of course, depend on the fate of democracy ; but that issue will not be in doubt if democracy does not doubt itself. English-speaking countries control so great a proportion of the decisive industries of radio, motion picture, the press, aviation, and shipping that English will certainly spread over the globe with greater and greater rapidity. Babel will be overcome by the English language.
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A Definition Vocabulary


    Any three persons who started out to write, respectively, a description of the system of Basic English, a history of its invention, and a manual of instructions for using it would find themselves covering very much the same material. To learn Basic easily one needs to know something of its theory, and one understands that theory twice as well after learning Basic. Readers who mean to follow this chapter's Practice Exercises, and learn how to write and speak Basic -- and I urge you to put your semantics to work in this way -- should take careful note of this chapter.
    *** 5 pages ***

Sixteen Verbs in Basic


    In Mr. Ogden's terminology, there are no verbs in Basic English. A verb is a telescoped word, with a complex meaning that implies direction or position as well as action. To disembark is to get | off | a ship. Basic keeps such acts and directions apart, and needs the names of only sixteen fundamental acts which function as verbs.
    Go is one of the sixteen ; and this diagram shows how go makes the seven other verbs unnecessary for Basic purposes.

penetrate <          climb        /     enter
	    \        ^          <	
leave	 <--        GO         <--     approach
	    /         V
emerge     <         descend

    Which seven direction-words in conjunction with go will replace those verbs? Prepositions, those operators which symbolize positions and directions -- in, out, to, from, with, by, and others -- are getting more and more work to do in standard English ; and in Basic their functions must be thoroughly understood. Simple drawings of the relations they symbolize in physical space will establish their root senses, and their metaphorical wanderings, in time (on Tuesday, in May), and among Fictions (under a misapprehension, out of danger), and their idiomatic uses must not be allowed to lose all connection with their senses. If this sounds complicated, let us put it another way. In speaking Basic, we must use only the 850 words, and we must not use even those too slangily or colloquially or idiomatically. Though C. K. Ogden has graded our commonest idioms according to their difficulty, in the last resort the speaker of Basic must judge for himself whether or not to use any given idiom. His decision will base itself upon his particular audience -- is it likely to know the idiom? If not, could the meaning be inferred from the context, or from the root senses of the separate words the idiom contains ? If he uses it, and finds he has guessed wrong, then he must call upon his techniques of definition.
    Naturally, the sixteen verbs combine with other words besides prepositions. One cannot prepare in Basic, but one can get ____. You cannot try or assault, but you can make an ____ and make an ____. You cannot inform somebody, but you may give him ____, or even, more slangily, put him ____. (What are the missing five words?)
    Current American uses these sixteen verbs more thoroughly than they are used in other English-speaking countries. Basic English exploits them to the limit : in combination with prepositions, nouns, and adjectives, they can do all the work that verbs have to do.
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get ready , make an attempt , make an attack , give him information , put him right.
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Why Learn Basic ?


    There is a mysterious idea afoot that foreigners can learn Basic English very easily, but that those who know English already find Basic very had to learn. This is erroneous -- one can learn to write or talk Basic in a day. The Basic machinery works a bit stiffly at first, but only the lubrication of practice is necessary.
    *** 4 pages ***

Chief Points

    Basic English is a language of 850 English words. It was designed for three purposes : as an international language , as a first step to complete English , and as an instrument for getting our thoughts clear. Learning the use of Basic is good training in semantics and a help in the writing of clear English.

Practice Exercises
HOW TO WRITE BASIC ENGLISH

    There are people who prefer, after a theoretical bird's-eye view of the system, to write Basic English at once. Perhaps these instructions will help such people, too, though they are addressed to the ordinary learner who prefers to work progressively and thoroughly master one stage before going to the next.
    Here, the following different sorts of Basic words ill be attended to separately.
    1 . Pictured names .   These are nouns, the names of separate, picturable, and mostly solid things. Examples : angle, key, worm.
    2 . Qualities (150) . Adjectives. Examples : able, awake, young.
   In addition to the 150 Basic qualities, I shall treat as adjectives certain words ending in -ing and certain words ending in -ed.
    (a) -ing words. Grammarians have a lot of trouble in classifying these words. I shall deal with them as adjectives unless, like coming, going, putting, etc., they belong to the sixteen Basic verbs, or unless, like learning, reading, writing, etc., they are listed among the General Names.
    Such -ing words as Basic permits can be used in every way permissible in ordinary English. One can say : it is a painting , he is painting , he is painting the house , etc.
    (b) -ed words. These may only be used as adjectives or with the verb be (is, was, are, etc.). A good rule of thumb question here is to ask oneself if one could substitute for the -ed word the adjective sad, and still make a grammatical, through not necessarily a sensible, sentence.
(It is a printed book.
He printed the book.
We had printed it.
the book was printed.
Which of the above four printed's are good Basic ?)
    3 . Adverbs in -ly . These are adjectives to which the suffix ly has been added. Examples : angrily, secretly, sweetly.
    4 . General Names (400) . These nouns are mostly the names of fictions, or of substances or materials ; or, to put it another way, the names of things which are not picturable. Examples : account, memory, metal, year.
    5 . Operators (52) . Prepositions, pronouns, adverbs, conjunctions, and other oddments. Examples : about, some, who, I, almost, yes.
    6 . Verbs and auxiliaries (18) . There are 16 verbs and 2 auxiliaries.

FIRST STEP

    The first and most important trick in Basic is to lean to use only 16 verbs and still not neglect the -ing and -ed possibilities explained above. Write something and check it very carefully for illegal verbs and illicit auxiliaries, and do not leave this step till you can do it well.
    1 . Pictured names   Use all you please.
    2 . Qualities   Any adjectives are permitted, including -ing and -ed words.
    3 . Adverbs in -ly   Use all such adverbs freely.
    4 . General names   No restrictions.
    5 . Operators   Any operators.
    6 . Verbs and auxiliaries   Use only these verbs : come get give go keep let make put seem take be do have say see send, and these auxiliaries : will may.
    The 16 verbs take all their forms and tenses, just as in ordinary English ; and would and might, the past forms of will and may, can be used.
    Warning : Beware of using these words - can, could, shall, should, must.

SECOND STEP

    Having perfected the first step, now write something using no prepositions, conjunctions, etc. not given below. Do not worry about pronouns, because all of them are in Basic.
    1 . Pictured names   No restriction.
    2 . Qualities (including -ing and -ed words)   No restriction.
    3 . Adverbs in -ly   No restriction.
    4 . General names   No restriction.
    5 . Operator   Use only these operators :
about across after against among at before between by down from in off on over through to under up with ; as for of till than ; a the ; all any every on other some such ; that this ; I (me, we, etc.) he (him it they, etc.) you (your) who (what which, whom, etc.) ; and because but or if though while ; how when where why ; again ever far forward here near now out still then there together well ; almost enough even little much (more, most) not only quite so very ; tomorrow yesterday ; north south east west ; please yes.

    Warning : Do no use that as a relative pronoun -- say "the house which Jack made."
    Beware of these words, which are not in Basic : above, also, each, many, too.

THIRD STEP

    When this is mastered, the rest is child's play. The third step is to use only the 400 General Names -- concrete nouns may still be used freely.
    1 . Pictured names   No restriction.
    2 . Qualities (including -ing and -ed words)   No restriction.
    3 . Adverbs in -ly   No restriction.
    4 . General names   Use only these general names :
    account act addition adjustment advertisement agreement air amount amusement animal answer apparatus approval argument art attack attempt attention attraction authority ;
    back balance base behavior belief birth bit bite blood blow body brass bread breath brother building burn burst business butter ;
    canvas care cause chalk chance change cloth coal color comfort committee company comparison competition condition connection control cook copper copy cork cotton cough country cover crack credit crime crush cry current curve ;
    damage danger daughter day death debt decision degree design desire destruction detail development digestion direction discovery discussion disease disgust distance distribution division doubt drink driving dust ;
    earth edge education effect end error event example exchange existence expansion experience expert ;
    fact fall family father fear feeling fiction field fight fire flame flight flower fold food force form friend front fruit ;
    glass gold govenment grain grass grip group growth guide ;
    harbor harmony hate hearing heat help history hole hope hour humor ;
    ice idea impulse increase industry ink insect instrument insurance interest invention iron ;
    jelly join journey judge jump;
    kick kiss knowledge ;
    land language laugh law lead learning leather letter level lift light limit linen liquid list look loss love ;
    machine man manager mark market mass meal measure meat meeting memory metal middle milk mind mine minute mist money month morning mother motion mountain move music ;
    name natioin need news night noise note number ;
    observation offer oil operation opinion order organization ornament owner ;
    page pain paint paper part paste payment peace person place plant play pleasure point poison polish porter position powder power price print process produce profit property prose protest pull punishment purose push ;
    quality question
    rain range rate ray reaction reading reason record regret relation religion representative request respect rest reward rhythm rice river road roll room rub rule run ;
    salt sand scale science sea seat secretary selection self sense servant sex shade shake shame shock side sign silk servant sex shade shake shame shock side sign silk silver sister size sky sleep slip slope smash smell smile smoke sneeze snow soap society son song sort sound soup space stage start statement steam steel step stitch stone stop story stretch structure substance sugar suggestion summer support surprise swim system ;
    talk taste tax teaching tendency test theory thing thought thunder time tin top touch trade transport trick trouble turn twist ;
    unit use ;
    value verse vessel view voice ;
    walk war wash wste water wave wax way weather week weight wind wine winter woman wood wool word work wound writing ;
    year .

    Note on -er words : Words like attacker, painter, printer, writer may be formed from the words in the list above, if such derivatives exist in ordinary English.
    5 . and 6 . Operators, verbs and auxiliaries in strict Basic.

FOURTH STEP

    1 . Pictured names   No restriction.
    2 . Qualities   Use only these adjectives :
    able acid angry automatic awake ;
    bad beautiful bent bitter black blue boiling bright broken brown ;
    certain cheap chemical chief clean clear cold common complete complex conscious cruel cut ;
    dark dead dear deep delicate dependent different dirty dry ;
    early elastic electric equal ;
    false fat feeble female fertile first fixed flat foolish free frequent full future ;
    general good great green gray ;
    hanging happy hard healthy high hollow ;
    ill important ;
    kind ;
    last late left like living long loose loud low ;
    male married material medical military mixed ;
    narrow natural necessary new normal ;
    old open opposite ;
    parallel past physical political poor possible present private probable public ;
    quick quiet ;
    ready red regular responsible right rough round ;
    sad safe same second separate serious sharp short shut simple slow small smooth soft solid special sticky still straight strange strong sudden sweet;
    tall thick thin tight tired true ;
    violent ;
    waiting warm wet white wide wise wrong ;
    yellow young .

    Use comparatives and superlatives -- more tired , most tired , sadder, saddest-- as in ordinary English.
    Use un- (meaning not) before any adjective that takes it in ordinary English.
    3 . Adverbs in -ly   Use only such -ly adverbs as are formed from the adjectives listed above.
    4 ., 5 ., and 6 . General names, operators, verbs and auxiliaries in strict Basic.

FIFTH STEP

    1 . Pictured names   Use only those names of things that can be pictured :
    angle ant apple arch arm army ;
    baby bag ball band basin basket bath bed bee bell berry bird blade board boat bone book boot bottle box boy brain brake branch brick bridge brush bucket bulb button ;
    cake camera card carriage cart cat chain cheese chest chin church circle clock cloud coat collar comb cord cow cup curtain cushion ;
    dog door drain drawer dress drop ;
    ear egg engine eye ;
    face farm feather finger fish flag floor fly foot fork fowl frame ;
    garden girl glove goat gun ;
    hair hammer hand hat head heart hook horn horse hospital house ;
    island ;
    jewel ;
    kettle key knee knife knot ;
    leaf leg library line lip lock ;
    map match monkey moon mouth muscle ;
    nail neck needle nerve net nose nut ;
    office orange oven ;
    parcel pen pencil picture pig pin pipe plane plate plow pocket pot potato prison pump ;
    rail rat receipt ring rod roof root ;
    sail school scissors screw seed sheep shelf ship shirt shoe skin skirt snake sock spade sponge spoon spring square stamp star station stem stick stocking stomach store street sun ;
    table tail thread throat thumb ticket toe tongue tooth town train tray tree trousers ;
    umbrella ;
    wall watch wheel whip whistle window wing wire worm.

    This is now strict Basic English ; and -er, -ing, and -ed words may now be used only if they are formed from Basic nouns. (Thus, planting and framing are in Basic but roping and starching are not, because rope and starch are not.)

A SUMMARY OF POINTS TO REMEMBER

1 . Start writing Basic before trying to memorize all the details about its use. If uncertain about any point not mentioned in this book, study examples in books mentioned in this book, study examples in books mentioned in this chapter or write for information to The Orthological Committee, Cambridge, Massachusetts, or the Orthological Institute, London, England. Or, Basic English Institute. I am indebted to these institutions for permission to use these Basic materials, which should not be reproduced without their permission.
2 . Words like painter, painting, painted may be used in Basic if their elementary form is in the vocabulary ; but -ed words must not be used as "finite verbs."
3 . All the pronouns of English are in Basic, but that should not be used as a relative pronoun.
4 . Compound nouns may be formed from Basic words : that is, a noun may be used as an adjective.
5 . Beware of forming derivatives which are not allowed in Basic. The suffixes -y , -ful , -less , -ness are not permissible. (Un- is the only prefix in Basic, and the only suffixes are -er , -ing , -er , -est ; -ly.)
6 . Numbers, dates, currency, weights, and measures, and certain words which are used almost universally, can be used in Basic in their normal English form.
7 . Any nouns or adjective needed for special purposes can be introduced into Basic writing or conversation, if they are first defined.
8 . Write short, ten to twelve-word sentences until the whole system of Basic comes easily.
9 . Finally, when you know the system, judge your Basic by the way it stands up as normal English. Bad English is bad Basic !
10 . Learning Basic will help you in learning foreign languages.

Alphabetic List of the Words of Basic English

a , able , about , account , acid , across , act , addition , adjustment , advertisement , agreement , after , again , against , air , all , almost , among , amount , amusement , and , angle , angry , animal , answer , ant , any , apparatus , apple , approval , arch , argument , arm , army, art , as , at , attack , attempt , attention , attraction , authority , automatic , awake .

baby , back , bad , bag , balance , ball , band , base , basin , basket , bath , be , beautiful , because , bed , bee , before , behavior , belief , bell , bent , berry , between , bird , birth , bit , bite , bitter , black , blade , blood , blow , blue , board , boat , body , boiling , bone , book , boot , bottle , box , boy , brain , brake , branch , brass , bread , breath , brick , bridge , bright , broken , brother , brown , brush , bucket , building , bulb , burn , burst , business , but , butter , button , by .

cake , camera , canvas , card , care , carriage , cart , cat , cause , certain , chain , chalk , chance , change , cheap , cheese , chemical , chest , chief , chin , church , circle , clean , clear , clock , cloth , cloud , coal , coat , cold , collar , color , comb , come , comfort , committee , common , company , comparison , competition , complete , complex , condition , connection , conscious , control , cook , copper , copy , cord , cork , cotton , cough , country , cover , cow , crack , credit , crime , cruel , crush , cry , cup , current , curtain , curve , cushion , cut .

damage , danger , dark , daughter , day , dead , dear , death , debt , decision , deep , degree , delicate , dependent , design , desire , destruction , detail , development , different , digestion , direction , dirty , discovery , discussion , disease , disgust , distance , distribution , division , do , dog , door , doubt , down , drain , drawer , dress , drink , driving , drop , dry , dust .

ear , early , earth , east , edge , education , effect , egg , elastic , electric , end , engine , enough , equal , error , even , event , ever , every , example , exchange , existence , expansion , experience , expert , eye .

face , fact , fall , false , family , far , farm , fat , father , fear , feather , feeble , feeling , female , fertile , fiction , field , fight , finger , fire , first , fish , fixed , flag , flame , flat , flight , floor , flower , fly , fold , food , foolish , foot , for , force , fork , form , forward , fowl , frame , free , frequent , friend , from , front , fruit , full , future .

garden , general , get , girl , give , glass , glove , go , goat , gold , good , government , grain , grass , great , green , grey/gray , grip , group , growth , guide , gun .

hair , hammer , hand , hanging , happy , harbor , hard , harmony , hat , hate , have , he (it, they, etc.) , head , healthy , hearing , heart , heat , help , here , high , history , hole , hollow , hook , hope , horn , horse , hospital , hour , house , how , humor .

I (us, our, etc.) , ice , idea , if , ill , important , impulse , in , increase , industry , ink , insect , instrument , insurance , interest , invention , iron , island .

jelly , jewel , join , journey , judge , jump .

keep , kettle , key , kick , kind , kiss , knee , knife , knot , knowledge .

land , language , last , late , laugh , law , lead , leaf , learning , leather, left , leg , let , letter , level , library , lift , light , like , limit , line , linen , lip , liquid , list , little (less ,least) , living , lock , long , loose , loss , loud , love , low .

machine , make , male , man , manager , map , mark , market , married , match , material , mass , may (might) , meal , measure , meat , medical , meeting , memory , metal , middle , military , milk , mind , mine , minute , mist , mixed , money , monkey , month , moon , morning , mother , motion , mountain , mouth , move , much (more, most) , muscle , music .

nail , name , narrow , nation , natural , near , necessary , neck , need , needle , nerve , net , new , news , night , no , noise , normal , north , nose , not , note , now , number , nut .

observation , of , off , offer , office , oil , old , on , only , open , operation , opinion , opposite , or , orange , order , organization , ornament , other , out , oven , over , owner.

page , pain , paint , paper , parallel , parcel , part , past , paste , payment , peace , pen , pencil , person , physical , picture , pig , pin , pipe , place , plane , plant , plate , play , please , pleasure , plough/plow , pocket , point , poison , polish , political , poor , porter , position , possible , pot , potato , powder , power , present , price , print , prison , private , probable , process , produce , profit , property , prose , protest , public , pull , pump , punishment , purpose , push , put .

quality , question , quick , quiet , quite .

rail , rain , range , rat , rate , ray , reaction , red , reading , ready , reason , receipt , record , regret , regular , relation , religion , representative , request , respect , responsible , rest , reward , rhythm , rice , right , ring , river , road , rod , roll , roof , room , root , rough , round , rub , rule , run .

sad , safe , sail , salt , same , sand , say , scale , school , science , scissors , screw , sea , seat , second , secret , secretary , see , seed , selection , self , send , seem , sense , separate , serious , servant , sex , shade , shake , shame , sharp , sheep , shelf , ship , shirt , shock , shoe , short , shut , side , sign , silk , silver , simple , sister , size , skin , skirt , sky , sleep , slip , slope , slow , small , smash , smell , smile , smoke , smooth , snake , sneeze , snow , so , soap , society , sock , soft , solid , some , son , song , sort , sound , south , soup , space , spade , special , sponge , spoon , spring , square , stamp , stage , star , start , statement , station , steam , stem , steel , step , stick , sticky , still , stitch , stocking , stomach , stone , stop , store , story , strange , street , stretch , stiff , straight , strong , structure , substance , sugar , suggestion , summer , support , surprise , such , sudden , sun , sweet , swim , system .

table , tail , take , talk , tall , taste , tax , teaching , tendency , test , than , that , the , then , theory , there , thick , thin , thing , this , thought , thread , throat , though , through , thumb , thunder , ticket , tight , tired , till , time , tin , to , toe , together , tomorrow , tongue , tooth , top , touch , town , trade , train , transport , tray , tree , trick , trousers , true , trouble , turn , twist .

umbrella , under , unit , use , up .

value , verse , very , vessel , view , violent , voice .

walk , wall , waiting , war , warm , wash , waste , watch , water , wave , wax , way , weather , week , weight , well , west , wet , wheel , when , where , while , whip , whistle , white , who (what, which, whom, whose) , why , wide , will (would) , wind , window , wine , wing , winter , wire , wise , with , woman , wood , wool , word , work , worm , wound , writing , wrong .

year , yellow , yes , yesterday , you (your) , young .



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