STEP  7

	VOCABULARY
Nouns		Adjectives
apple		acid
bird
branch		ready
end		red -- green
fruit
garden		sweet -- bitter
grass
tree
Structure Words				See	word pictures
keep		near -- far
let		almost
		quite
seem
about		all
up -- down		every
		no
you
who		if

STRUCTURE

1 . Nouns
    Nouns naming objects taken together as a mass or a group are treated like names of substances. We have two such 'collective' nouns in this Step, grass and fruit.
Some fruit is on the tree.
Grass is green.

2 . Adjectives of Quantity
    These may now be looked at as a group. In Step 5, you learned some. We come in this Step to no, all, every.
    Like all non-descriptive adjectives, adjectives of quantity preceded descriptive adjectives before a noun.
    Like some, none of the adjectives of quantity given here can be proceeded by a, or a pointing or possessive adjective.
    All is, however, an exception to the general rule by which a, the, and the pointing and possessive adjectives come before all other adjectives qualifying the same noun, and it may be used with any of these following it except a(n).
    All is used to indicate the total number or amount taken together. All is used with both names of substances and names of things, the latter being in the plural (apart from the exception noted below).
All grass is green
All trains go to stations.
    The or a possessive or pointing adjective (or pronoun) used after all indicates that the total is only of the particular group or amount being referred to, not of the things named in general.
All the potatoes in the garden are small.
All these trains go from there to London.
All my food is here.
All that is green.
   When followed by the, etc., all may qualify the name of a countable in the singular, in the sense of 'the whole of'.
I will not give all the apple to my brother.
    Like some, all has a pronoun use.
She has some potatoes in her garden but all are small.
He will keep all of these.
    There is no difference between all these and all of these ; they are merely alternative expressions. The only case in which of is necessary after all is before a personal pronoun.
All of them (never ALL they) are here.
He will take all of them (never all them) into the garden.

    Every is also used to indicate the total number of the things named, but in contrast with all, it makes us think of them one by one. Therefore, like a, it only goes with singular nouns, and, when used with names of substances, its sense is 'every sort of'.
Every tree has branches. ¹
Every food in the picture is sweet.

    No has the sense 'not any amount of' or 'not any number of, not one,' and so its uses are parallel to those of both all and every. It makes no difference to the sense whether we say no man ('not one man') or no men ('not any men').
No married man will do the work.
I take no apples from this tree.
No grass is red.

    Note that a sentence with no may take the place of a negative formed with not.
I take no apples from this tree == I do not take apples from this tree.
I have no table in my room == I have not a table in my room.
    You have learned some as the adjective of indefinite amount. A very common use brings out the contrast (which we have already seen implied in the pronoun) between the things, etc., singled out by some and other things of the same sort.
Some apples are read   (but not all).
Some buildings have no garden.
    Some has also a more distinct further sense as '(a) particular but unidentified', in which it can com before a singular noun naming a countable.
Some woman is in the garden.   (that is, 'a woman, I don't know who')
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^{1 .} Note the spelling, in accordance with the rule you were given in Step 3, of the plural form of branch. The only other new word in this Step whose plural form needs to be noted is grass (grasses).
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3 . Pronouns
    Turn to the Table on Pronouns on page 3 and learn the forms of the Second Person and the First Person Plural. You will note that the singular and the Plural of the Second Person are the same.
You are his mother, and you are his father.
You have no other sons.
Your son is in your house. He is with you.
My {brother | sister | sister and brother } and I will go into the garden.
We will give some food to the birds.
The birds come to us and take the food from our hands.

Root Form	Form for Subjects	Form for Objects	Possessive Adjective
Singular and Plural	WHO	WHO(M)1	WHOSE
S & P	WHICH	WHICH
S & P	WHAT	WHAT

^1.With certain exceptions which will be dealt with later, who is generally used instead of whom in talk and informal writing.
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    The Table above gives the forms of the relative pronoun, which acts as a pronoun and a conjunction at the same time. It is used after a noun or pronoun to introduce a statement giving an identifying or supplementary description ¹ of what is name by it. A relative pronoun may be the subject or the object of the descriptive statement or the object of a preposition in it, but whatever part it plays in the statement, it always come at the beginning.
    In this Step, we are concerned only with who and which. You will note that these are both singular and plural.
    Who is used for persons (male or female) and which are animals and things.
The married son is not here.           }
The son who is married is not here. }
I will take the book to my mother. She is in the garden. }
I will take the book to my mother, who is in the garden. }
I will give them to a woman who has small hands.
Some food is on the table for the men, who seem ready for it.
She is the woman who(m) I may get for the work.
The friends who(m) we will give the fruit to are in the garden.
The bird which takes the fruit is on that branch.
You may take the apples which are on the grass.
This fruit which I have in my hand is for my brother.
He is by the branch which the bird is on.
    The singular pronoun that has a special use before which in the quite general sense of 'the thing' or 'a thing', with no reference to anything previously mentioned.
You may do that which I do.
    In the same way, the plural those may be used before who in the sense of '(the) persons'.
Those who give to others have friends.
    The possessive adjective whose, given in the Table for persons, may also be used for things. Like the other relative forms, it is placed at the beginning of the statement, followed by the noun it qualifies, no matter whether this is subject or object.
The man whose hand is in his pocket is my brother.
I will give these apples to the friend whose books you have.
W will take the frit from the tree whose branches the birds are on.
My father, whose office is in the town, will get the book for me.
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^1. When a statement introduced by a relative is not necessary to the identification of that object, it has a comma before it (and after it if the sentence continues.).
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4 . Operators

Root Form	Past	Present	Future
KEEP	KEPT	KEEP   but He etc. KEEPS	WILL KEEP
LET	LET	LET He etc. LETS	WILL LET
SEEM	SEEMED	SEEM     but He etc SEEMS	WILL SEEM

    As you will see, the Present and Future forms of these three new operators are quite regular. We are not concerned with the Past forms in this Step.
    Keep has the sense of having, possibly forever, and not letting others have.
We keep all the fruit which we get from our garden.
He keeps the food for the birds.
She will keep his picture.

    The root sense of let is 'put nothing in the way of the action or behavior of some person or thing', which ranges from mere non-interference to the actual giving of permission. This makes it natural for it to be followed by a noun or pronoun and an operator. The word naming the person or thing whose action is permitted comes straight after let (in the form for the object in the case of a pronoun) followed by the root form of the operator naming the action, etc.
They let the birds take the fruit.
The manager lets us go when the other go.
The woman who has the small son will not let him take the pot off the fire.

    Seem, like be, is an operator which does not represent an action. In its simplest use, seem is followed by an adjective (but see Step 19).
The birds on that great branch seem small.
The train seems slow.
The house will seem full when the family comes in from work.

5 . Prepositions     Three more prepositions come into this Step.
The flowers in the grass about the tree are white.
He goes up this side of the wall and down the other side.
    Up and down are also used adverbially.
I put my hand up
    We have noted the use of to after give. This is an instance of the general rule that the person or thing to which an act, etc., is directed (the 'indirect object'), or in relation to which a condition is asserted, is preceded by to.
He will not do that to you.
She is married to the man.
These apples seem sweet to me, but they seem acid to John.

6 . Adverbs
ORDER
    When two or more adverbs or adverbial phrases follow an operator, their order cannot be reduced to exact rules, and the student must depend largely on careful observation. One general principle, however, may be given for his guidance : Always put the adverb, etc., most necessary to the sense of the operator before any other.
We will go in from the garden.
The rule already given (page 29), that adverbs of time follow adverbs of lace, is a special instance of this general principle.
   Near and far indicate the position of one thing in relation to another. When it is desired to put in the name of that in relation to which something is near or far, we put a preposition after the adverb and say near to¹ or far from.
When the bird at the end of the branch come near, but may take some food from my hand.
I will put this near to the other trees.
My father does not go far at night.
The train take him far from his friend.
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^1. It will be seen in Step 10, however, that near also has a prepositional use.
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ADVERBS OF DEGREE
    The adverbs of degree almost and quite go with adjectives, adverbs, and operators. They precede these but follow an auxiliary.
The meal is almost ready.
It will be quite ready when you come.
The train is almost full.
The train is not quite full.
The boy almost gets the bird.
The bird will go before she quite gets it.
He will almost do the work.
I may not quite do the work.

7 . Conjunctions
    If, introduces a dependent statement qualifying the main statement by a condition. The dependent statement may come before or after the main statement. This may be taken as applying to adverbial dependent statements generally except where it is made clear that no alternative position is possible.
The birds take the fruit if it is sweet.
If it is bitter or acid, they do not take it.

    When the condition refers to the future, the dependent statement is still put in the Present Tense, even though the main statement is in the Future Tense.
If you go into the garden, I will go with you.

EXERCISES

    1 . (a) Describe what you see in the first picture in two different ways, first using let and then keep.
         (b) Describe what the tree in the second picture seems to the man and what it is.

    2 . Fill in the blanks with an adjective of amount.
(a)   _____ father is a man
(b)   _____ trees have branches.
(c)   _____ mothers are men.
(d)   _____ gardens have trees.
(e)   _____ the fruit is on the grass.
(f)   _____ grass is white.
(g)   _____ fruit is bitter.

    3 . Fill in the blanks with a relative form.
(a)   The apples _____ are on the tree are sweet.
(b)   I will go to the man _____ son is on the branch.
(c)   That is the friend _____ I will give the apples to.
(d)   He comes from the house _____ garden these threes are in.
(e)   The apples _____ we will give to your are in the bag.
(f)   The friends _____ I will take to the garden are at the door.

    4 . Describe the condition of these pots, using an adverb of degree in connection with each.

    5 . Write two if-statements concerning the alternative directions that the woman may take and what she will come to in each case.

    6 . Translate into Basic :
(The following sentences should be given to the learner in his own language for translation into Basic.)
Teacher's Link

	VOCABULARY
Nouns		Adjectives
basket		beautiful
berry		bright -- dark
bit		hanging
cook
leaf
net
plant
shade
stretch

IN THE GARDEN

    Our garden is at the back of the house. At the front we have a green plant in a pot. Near to the house are beds of flowers. All gardens in England have flowers. Friends who have gardens give plants to us and when we take plants out of the beds we give them to our friends. The bright flowers in our garden are beautiful. I will take you into our garden.
    The bit of the garden at the side of the house is where our potato plants are. The potatoes are not quite ready.
    The fruit trees are far from the house. If a building has trees about it, the rooms will be dark when the leaves are on the trees. Our fruit trees are at the end of the garden. Between the flower beds and the trees is a beautiful stretch of green grass. On bright days we put a table on the grass in a place which is in the shade and have our meals out in the garden.
    The tree by the wall is a great apple-tree. Green apples are hanging on the branches. The fruit is acid, but birds will take it if I do not put a net over the tree. I have a net for every tree. I will let the birds take the apples which go on the grass. This net which I am hanging on a branch is not the net which I will put over the apple tree. It is a small net and I will put it over that small tree by the flower-bed.
    The apples on this other tree are almost red. They are early apples. They may be red before they are sweet. When they seem quite ready, my small son will go up the tree with a basket and take the sweet, red apples hanging on the branches. When his basket is full, he will come down the tree with it and take the apples to the cook. We will keep some apples and give some to our friends. The friends to whom we will give the apples have no apples in their garden. I will put some apples in your basket before you go.
    In the shade of the fruit trees are plants from which we get berries. Some berries are bitter but our berries are sweet.

8 . Notes


at the back of the house : Here, clearly, at the back of == 'behind'. Similarly, at the front in the next sentence == 'in front of it', and 'at the side of' in the third paragraph == 'alongside. compare the used noted on page 29.
beds of flowers : A stretch of turned-up earth in a garden in which seeds or plants are put is called a bed.
out of : Note this important idiom. Of is put after out to express the opposite of the preposition in or into
leaves : Note that leaf forms its plural in the same way as shelf. Berries (plural of berry), which is used later in the Step, should also be noted..
at the end of the garden : That is, 'in the portion bordering on the end'.

hanging on the branches : this net which I am hanging :

}   Hanging, may mean either "suspended", as in the first of these examples, } or "causing to be suspended", as in the second. In the first case, it is frequently completed by a phrase indicating place, the point of attachment, etc. ; in the second, it takes an object.

a net over the tree : A thing which is over another may be at a distance from it or touching it. This second sense is very like that of on, but it has in addition the idea of 'covering'. If on had been used here, it would not have been so clear that the net was to cover the whole area of the tree.
early apples : An early (late) fruit, vegetable, etc., is one which matures early (late) in the season.
when they seem quite ready : That is, 'ready for eating, ripe'.

the friends to whom we will give the apples : plants from which we get berries :

}     When a relative pronoun is the object of a preposition, } the preposition frequently precedes it instead of being put at the end of the statement. In this case, the form who is never used in place of whom.

the shade of the fruit trees : Of  frequently indicates that by which something is caused or produced.

    The sense of these compound words is clear without a note : apple-tree, flower-bed, fruit-tree.   Current usage treats these as separate words with nouns used as qualifiers of other nouns.



8 . EXERCISES

    1 . Describe what you see in this picture, bringing in the following words : berry, plant, cook, bit, basket, leaf, beautiful, hanging.

    2 . Give the plurals of branch, berry, stretch, grass, leaf.

    3 . With which of the new words in the last two Steps would an be used instead of a.

    4 . Rewrite these statements, using the word in brackets :
(a)   All gardens in England have flowers .   (every)
(b)   Friends with gardens give plants to us.   (who)
(c)   The late potatoes are not quite ready.   (almost)
(d)   This is the bit of the garden in which our potatoes are.   (where)
(e)   The man who we get the apples from has no berries.   (whom)

    5 . Fill in the blanks in these sentences :
(a)   We _____ the red apples and we _____ our friends take the green apples.
(b)   _____ are fruit and _____ are fruit.
(c)   This bit of the garden is dark. It is in the _____ of the wall.
(d)   I take a _____ of food out _____ the basket.

    6.   Translate into Basic :
(The following sentences should be given to the learner in his own language for translation into Basic.)
Teacher's Link

    7.   Answer in Basic :
(a)   Where is our garden ?
(b)   Where are the flower beds in our garden ?
(c )   Where are the potatoes planted ?
(d)   What is there between the flower-beds and the trees ?
(e)   What will we do with the apples which my son gets ?
(f )   When will my son come down from the tree ?
(g )   What are there in the shade of the fruit-trees ?
(h)   Are all berries sweet ?
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